While there is a tendency in recent times to frame the concept of excellence in terms of outstanding personal achievement or performance, the word has a much deeper underlying range of meanings, encompassing not only outstanding mastery of a domain of knowledge and/or skills (and the success and eminence that confers) but also the attainment of moral virtue. In short, in its fullest sense, the word connotes not only being “good at” something, but also being “good at something intrinsically good,” and this composite sense is conveyed in the definition in the Oxford Dictionary: “possession chiefly of good qualities in an eminent or unusual degree; surpassing merit, skill, virtue, dignity, eminence.”

Excellence is therefore much more than what is implied by “professionalism,” or “accomplishment.” After all, we can talk about an accomplished fraudster or a professional hit man, but would it not be rather strange to say that Mario is an excellent hit man, unless we were members of the Mafia? The difference is that the heart of excellence is not simply about personal mastery, or effectiveness in accomplishing a task, but includes excellence of human character, and that has a moral and ultimately a spiritual dimension. There is evidence from the world of sport that amateurs often have much better ethical values than professionals, probably because their objective is not typically to win at all costs. Nevertheless, the close association between professionalism and excellence (in one sense of being the “best”) is widespread in statements of business principles and is included in those of the investment banker Goldman Sachs: “We take great pride in the professional quality of our work: We have an uncompromising determination to achieve excellence in everything we undertake. Though we may be involved in a wide variety and heavy volume of activity, we would, if it came to a choice, rather be best than biggest.” What this means in practice may perhaps be judged by the resignation in 2012 of Greg Smith, from the company. Smith, an executive director and Head of US equity derivatives businesses in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, attributed his decision to resign to the “decline in the firm’s moral fiber” and its “toxic and destructive” culture which attached far more importance to making as much money as possible out of clients than taking care of clients’ interests with integrity.

The reclamation of the full scope and standing of excellence is also of particular importance at a time when it has become little more than a mere buzzword in educational discourse. Kathryn Allan describes the process by which an element (or elements) of the meaning of a word is lost, weakened or ‘bleached” over time. This semantic entropy is a common feature of semantic change, especially with positive terms. How often do we hear words like “brilliant” or “fantastic” to describe trivial accomplishments. A striking example is the word cunning, which now has the sense of “skillfully deceitful” or “crafty” (from the 16th century), but originally had the sense of “learned.” Its root also links ability and knowledge in such derivations as can and Scots ken, “know.” In this case, the driver of change might well have been the influence of the church in stigmatizing all knowledge and skills derived for pagan sources as the work of the devil, and hence “devious”. Ideological, cultural, and institutional factors clearly play an important role in shifting the meanings of words over time, and we need to be very alert to these influences.

Allan argued in 2007 for the status of excellence as a modern “keyword” not only because of its “semantic ambiguity” but also because it offers access to “current perspectives” in an important area of culture and society. It can be argued that this status is now warranted more than ever. Allan reports an 86% increase in the use of the term in educational journals in the JSTOR collection in the twenty years from the period 1976-1980 to 1996-2000. The increasing prominence of the word in modern educational discourse and in the mission statements churned out by educational institutions and government initiatives has attracted a degree of ridicule by some commentators on education. In his book suggestively entitled The University in Ruins, Bill Readings refers to the current usage of the word “excellence” as an “empty notion,” and Allan refers to the opinion of another commentator that the frequency with which the word is used by a university in promotional materials is an indicator of whether that institution is third-rate. She also reveals that only four out of 21 randomly selected British universities (a mixture of pre- and post-1992 institutions, including both Russell Group members and ex-polytechnics) do not use the word excellence (or its relatives like excellent and excel) in their mission statements.

Many argue that this reduction of excellence to a buzzword, or, at worst, to meaningless mantra, is the inevitable outcome of a competitive, market-led university recruitment and evaluation system geared to massively increased enrolment. With government funding increasingly linked to the demonstrable ability of universities to “deliver” standards, meet quantifiable targets, and provide evidence that they are doing so, traditional internal methods of quality assurance and accountability for reliably maintaining established standards are under increasing pressure from the oppressive and elaborate “systems” embedded in rampant managerialism. This can not only stifle creativity, original thought, and diverse insights, and the like, but also create a culture of uniformity, compliance, and mediocrity in which inspired leadership cannot flourish. There is mounting concern, as noted by Allan, that “changes in teaching practice and assessment have not upheld the level of quality that was previously the norm in universities.” As Morley notes, “in the age of global capitalism universities have been reduced to a technical ideal of performance within a contemporary discourse of excellence.”

The restriction and even debasement of meaning entailed in that contemporary discourse can best be challenged by recapturing not only its sense of genuinely outstanding mastery but also its somewhat forgotten moral dimension. To do so, a look at the root of the word is the most fertile starting-point. Its underlying sense is of physically “rising above” others. It came into English via Old French from Latin excellere, “to rise above, raise up, elevate, be eminent,” formed from ex -(out) + the hypothetical verbal element cellere, assumed to mean something like “rise, be high.” The source of the Latin word is the Indo-European base kol- or kel-, “be prominent,” which also produced English column, culminate, and hill, although in Latin the metaphorical sense of excellere as being “outstanding” superseded its concrete physical sense at an early stage. Including the word colonel (leader of a column) in his list of derivations from the root, Shipley notes that in the southern states of America in the 19th century, any gentleman over forty was addressed as “colonel.” Though apparently a rather quaint reference, this is of unexpected significance in the light of the verse in the Qur’an which refers to “man” (Arabic insān, and hence denoting both men and women) attaining maturity at the age of forty (46:15). Muhammad Asad comments that the age of forty is here identified as “the age at which man is supposed to attain to full intellectual and spiritual maturity,” as also indicated by the fact that it was the age at which the first revelations came to the Prophet Muhammad. The point here is not any literal or automatic significance attached to the age itself but the important idea within the Islamic conception of human development that human excellence is intertwined with intellectual and spiritual maturity.

It is revealing here to probe the meaning of the Greek word areté. Usually translated as “virtue,” it was nevertheless not a specifically moral term. It was used to refer not only to human skills but also to inanimate objects, natural substances, and domestic animals. A good knife had the virtue (areté) of being able to cut well “by virtue of” its sharpness. The term denoted any sort of excellence, distinctive power, capacity, skill, or merit, rather like Latin virtus, which, like the Greek, also had the sense of bravery and strength. The Italian word virtuoso preserves the sense of exceptional skill. The connotation of excellence in the word areté also comes through in the related word aristokratia, “rule by the best people.” Such an ideal need not be equated with its debased realization in the form of government in which power is held by a hereditary ruling class of aristocrats or other privileged “elite” rather than by people of real merit or, indeed, by people elected or formally chosen in line with the original meaning of the word “elite” from Latin electus, “chosen.”

Useful convergence can be found here with Confucian ethics, in which the most frequently discussed ideal is that of the junzi (or chun-tzu). David Wong explains that the Chinese word originally meant “son of a prince,” a member of the aristocracy, “but in the Analects of Confucius it refers to ethical nobility. The first English translations rendered the term as “gentleman” but the more appropriate terms “superior man” or “exemplary person” have been suggested in more recent times. Wong also notes that “before Confucius’s time, the concept of ren referred to the aristocracy of bloodlines, meaning something like the strong and handsome appearance of an aristocrat. But in the Analects the concept is of a moral excellence that anyone has the potential to achieve.” He adds that the sense of ren as “all-encompassing moral virtue” is explicitly conveyed by some translators through use of the translation “Good” or “Goodness,” although it is also commonly translated as “benevolence” or “humaneness.” It might be noted here that the Prophet Muhammad’s reaction to boasts of ancestral glory was to warn those steeped in the arrogance of pre-Islamic pagan ignorance (jāhiliyyah) that Islam had abolished such tribalism (ʿaṣabiyyah), and that all human beings are descended from Adam. The Qur’an (49:13) advises that there is no superiority of one over another except in taqwā, that consciousness of God which inspires us to be vigilant and to do what is right.

Homer often associates areté with courage, but more often with effectiveness. The person of areté uses all their faculties to achieve their objectives, often in the face of difficult circumstances, hardship, or danger. One heroic model is Odysseus, not only brave and eloquent, but also wily, shrewd, and resourceful, with the practical intelligence and wit (in the sense of quick thinking) of the astute tactician able to use a cunning ruse to win the day. Although the Latin word virtus comes from vir, “man” (source of virility or manliness), itself originally from the Indo-European base wi-ro, “man,” Homer uses the word areté to describe not only male Greek and Trojan heroes but also female figures, such as Penelope, the wife of Odysseus, who embodies areté by showing how misfortune and sorrow can be stoically endured to an excellent degree. Such is the virtue of ṣabr (patient endurance) in Islamic tradition, in the same way as the aesthetic sense of refinement the Greeks also associated with areté converges at one level with that of iḥsān, “doing what is good and beautiful,” behaving in an excellent manner.” In Islamic ethics and spirituality, iḥsān embraces the aesthetic, moral, and spiritual dimensions of a beautiful and virtuous character (akhlāq and ādāb). In the same way, the concept of “beauty” expressed by the word ḥusn encompasses not only the aesthetic sense of beauty in its homage to the “due measure and proportion” with which all of creation is endowed by the Creator, but also the intimate equation between what is beautiful and what is good. Beauty is thus inseparable from the attributes of Divine Perfection, and from the goodness, moral virtue, spiritual refinement, and excellence of character which are the human reflections of those holy attributes. This integrated and elevated conception of beauty is fundamental to a proper understanding of what is meant by excellence in the domain of aesthetics.

In the original Greek of the New Testament, areté is included in the list of virtues for cultivation in Christian moral development and is associated primarily with the moral excellence of Jesus. It figures in the celebrated “Admonition of Paul” in Philippians 4:8, “Finally, brethren, whatever is true, whatever is honourable, whatever is just, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is gracious, if there is any excellence (areté), if there is anything worthy of praise, think on these things.” Other virtues in the New Testament include faith, knowledge (gnosis), godliness (eusebeia), brotherly affection (philadelphia), the highest form of love (agape) as the love of God for man and man for God, self-control (enkrateia), and steadfastness (hypomone).

Returning to the field of education, John Terry, in a book entitled Moral Education, provides an example of the right balance between the pursuit of knowledge and the attainment of goodness and “noble character.” This balance was the avowed aim of the founders of Philips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire. In the original Deed of Gift of 1781, John Phillips wrote: “But above all, it is expected that the attention of instructors to the disposition of the minds and morals of the youth under their charge will exceed every other care; well considering that though goodness without knowledge is weak and feeble, yet knowledge without goodness is dangerous, and that both united form the noblest character; and lay the surest foundation of usefulness to mankind.” Yet, as Terry points out in relation to contemporary education, “Most secondary schools do much better in knowledge than in goodness – particularly those engaged in the uncompromising pursuit of academic excellence.” Although he is referring here to the situation in America, an incomplete and often one-sided view of excellence is widespread (though in different ways) in educational systems at all levels and in all societies. In the UK, for example, in line with the statutory requirements of the National Curriculum, “moral and spiritual development” is often specified on school mission statements as an essential component of a broad and balanced curriculum, an indispensable dimension of its commitment to “delivering” excellence. In reality, it may often receive little more than lip service. As for Muslim societies, it hardly needs repeating that deficits in knowledge production, independent inquiry, and critical thinking are repeatedly lamented, with the establishment of “centers of excellence” often regarded as an important element in any strategy for educational reform.

If “higher education” is to be truly “higher” (and thus reflect the original etymological sense of excellence as “elevated” or “rising above others”), we might endorse the view of the University of Oxford Institute for the Advancement of University Learning that “higher education and higher learning” entail “the pursuit of higher-order cognitive capabilities in the context of disciplinary knowledge.” However, it needs to be noted that such a vision is normally framed as an essentially “cognitive” endeavor entailing the development, above all, of intellectual powers, with little, if any, reference to moral or spiritual development. For instance, the UK Council for National Academic Awards (now defunct) conceives of excellence within a model of “higher learning” which values the development of “understanding,” “independent judgement,” ‘problem-solving skills,” “an enquiring, analytical, and creative approach,” and “critical self-awareness.” The importance of all of this can hardly be denied, and we might take it even further by endorsing Roland Barnett’s contention that “genuine higher learning” is necessarily “subversive” and “unsettling,” because the student comes to see that things could always be other than they are, and “there are no final answers.” Intellectual excellence is therefore embodied in one form in the philosophical, social, and moral critic who asks difficult and relentless questions, even to the extent of being perceived as a dangerous freethinker. The truly visionary thinker, the one capable of bringing that degree of illumination which can transform lives and change the world for the better is operating at a level of “intellect” which is not merely “rational” or “logical” (Latin ratio, Greek dianoia) but capable of insight arising from reflection and contemplation (tafakkur) and other higher intellectual, intuitive, and moral faculties denoted by the Arabic term ʿaql and also by the Greek term nous. Aristotle connects happiness (eudaemonia), as an activity of the soul, with areté, of which the highest realization is the contemplative life (theoria). He also equates areté with the “mean” between excess and defect, a principle which converges with the Qur’anic description of Muslims as “a community of the middle way” (2:143) and one which is central to Al-Ghazālī’s exposition of Islamic ethics.

Abdelwahab El-Affendi affirms that institutions of higher education have a pivotal role in ensuring that the production of knowledge does not become divorced from the higher values of society:

As specialisations evolve, students tend to concentrate on minute details of their particular field, and may lose sight of overall objectives, guiding principles and interdisciplinary connections. Already in ancient Athens the so-called “Sophists,” the first dedicated professional teachers, were being satirised as unprincipled seekers of utility. Like modern-day lawyers, they became notorious for teaching the skills of winning an argument, regardless of the intrinsic value of the position staked. At the time of Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d.1111), similar accusations were being made against professional jurists (fuqahā’), reputed to seek lucrative employment and gain at the expense of lofty Islamic values. Regrettably, this remains a hazard even today.

The failure of even the most prestigious universities to promote excellence in the full sense of the word has been highlighted in Excellence Without a Soul, a critique of Harvard College by its former Dean, Harry Lewis. Reviewing this work, David Melleby relates how many scholars and experts believe that higher education in America is in crisis. “For better or worse, Harvard is looked to as one of the premier colleges in America and around the world.” Yet, according to Lewis, colleges in America (Harvard included) have forgotten that the fundamental job of undergraduate education is to turn teenagers into adults, to help them grow up, to learn who they are, to search for a larger purpose for their lives, and to leave college as better human beings. Lewis believes that because colleges have failed to offer students reasons for education – which forces students to wrestle with deeper questions of meaning and purpose – they are failing students and a country that desperately needs a well-educated citizenry. Lewis pleads with colleges and universities to not be afraid to talk about truth, meaning, purpose, and what it means to be human.” In his own words: “The old ideal of a liberal education lives on in name only. No longer does Harvard teach the things that will free the human mind and spirit.”

The mention of freedom here might also remind us that with so much emphasis in management-speak on “delivering” policies and practices, the word deliver is actually derived from Latin de-liberare, meaning to “set free.” Excellence in education entails the “liberation” or “deliverance” of the full range of human faculties and capacities, yet teachers are increasingly required to “deliver” a prescribed curriculum or a policy. There is a need to resist not only the kind of language which reduces education to a kind of soulless managerialism, but also the kind of language which equates education with the postal service. Are teachers only there to “deliver” programs of study, as if they were pre-packaged one-way parcels, mere items of content to be transmitted into letter-box brains? A complete, comprehensive and integrated concept of education requires that the teacher is not only responsible for the instruction and training of the mind and the transmission of knowledge (taʿlīm) but also with the education of the whole being and the nurturing of the soul (tarbiyyah), the cultivation of moral discipline (ta’dīb), and how to learn from one another in the spirit of critical openness and respect for diversity (taʿāruf).

To that end, the best education in all societies, the real measure of excellence, is the degree to which it addresses the totality of human faculties. It is nothing more nor less than the full realization of human potential. It can be discerned in the earliest Greek conception of areté as the fulfillment of purpose or function; and it comes through in many forms and ways in the wider cultural and linguistic landscape we have traversed. Aspects of excellence have been realized in all societies and at all times, and no culture or civilization has ever had a monopoly, even if some have attained to relative eminence in certain fields. That is surely why the Qur’an advises us to “vie with one another in doing good works” (2:148, 5:48) and to realize that we have been made into nations and tribes “so that we may come to know one another” (49:13). The attainment of excellence is a cumulative process which depends on the sharing of knowledge and skills, and on the respect for higher knowledge wherever it may be found.

This article is an excerpt from: Ziauddin Sardar & Jeremy Henzell-Thomas, Rethinking Reform in Higher Education (London/Washington: IIIT, 2017), pp. 209-19.

https://iiit.org/en/book/rethinking-reform-in-higher-education-from-islamization-to-integration-of-knowledge/

The views expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).